Virginia Rail

Virginia rails seem to walk on water. Photo by Arlene Koziol

“Secretive marsh birds” sounds like a church festival band or a clandestine middle school group. However, in nature, secretive marsh birds include rails and bitterns, where they dwell in wetland realms rarely breached by humans. Though the birds are not objectively secretive, they are indeed hard to spot from where humans stand.

Virginia rails provide a terrific look into the adaptations of marsh birds; the vocalizations alone seem like they could come from any number of species.  Its “k-k-k-kerrrrrr” trill sounds like the note of a spring peeper. Its “kiddick” call sounds like a malfunctioning dial-up internet connection. Its grunts are low, fuzzy, and accentuated by squeaks. 

This rail builds up to 30 dummy nests in a year, resembling the crazed paranoia of another marshland counterpart, the marsh wren.

If you have walked in a marsh where a Virginia rail has walked, you might be aware how maladapted humans are to these environments and you might gain respect for the Virginia rail. On floating mats at the edge of open water, we punch through; whereas Virginia rails stay upright with their light bodies and wide feet, probing on mudflats and floating mats of marsh. Where species like rice cutgrass, sedges, leatherleaf, stunted shrubs, and poison sumac might cause unholy irritation in humans, the Virginia rail’s laterally compressed body and tough forehead feathers allow it to scurry through wetland vegetation with ease. Anyone who has walked through a southern Wisconsin marsh has come to realize that rubber boots quickly become overtopped and the pure muscle and flexibility needed to high-step through a marsh builds up plenty of lactic acid. Here too, rails outclass us, with the highest ratio of leg muscles to flight muscles in birds, explaining their tenacity in marshes and their reluctant and haphazard flight.

Check out the giant feet on this Virginia rail chick! Photo by Mick Thompson

Research has shown that Virginia rails can be quite discerning in terms of their habitat preferences. On average, wetlands dominated by the invasive reed canary grass make poor habitat for rails. With predators of their eggs like mink, otter, great horned owls, northern harriers, and even cranes and egrets, rails need a complex structural attributes in order to thrive. A monotype of reed canary grass, might be difficult to navigate even for a hardy Virginia rail, and this monotype lacks the diverse structure that allows for great feeding opportunities.

For instance, at the Laas Tamarack—where rails have been discovered breeding—a view from above shows the complex habitat that rails enjoy.

The Laas Tamarack is one of Faville Grove’s delightfully diverse habitats. Map created by Drew Harry

I’ve been through this area on foot, and it contains open water, floating mud flats, floating areas with dense cattails, elevated mounds of tussock sedges, elevated mounds from muskrat lodges, wet pockets of sedges and blue flag iris, hummocky areas of sphagnum moss, and willows, bog birch, and red osier dogwood.  This diversity of habitat provides good cover and foraging and nesting spots for a rail.

Blue flag iris, within the wetland complex at the Laas Tamarack. Photo by Drew Harry

In addition, where the mean C-value is higher (which corresponds to high-quality vegetation), there tend to be more Virginia rails.

At Faville Grove, we strive to reduce the reed canary grass as much as possible, and our restoration plantings focus on biodiversity and often result in high mean C values. All of this makes good habitat for rails, and last year a Breeding Bird Atlas volunteer found an adult Virginia rail with its young in the sanctuary.

You might hear Virginia rails around dawn or dusk in any of the marshy spots around the sanctuary, but with high water levels, it’s even more difficult than usual to navigate these spots. Living up to its reputation as a secretive marsh bird, a Virginia rail sighting may remain elusive this year.

Earth Day Bird Count

Calla is checking out the sights, photo by Graham Steinhauer

We decided to hold an “Earth Day” Goose Pond Sanctuary Bird Count to reflect on changes to the sanctuary over the past 50 years. On April 23, 2020, Graham Steinhauer and Calla Norris counted in one team while Mark counted by himself in order to maintain social distancing.

On a gray day like April 23, it’s difficult to guess what birds you will find. You see a few drab shapes (save for the striking black and white contrast of diving ducks) swimming in the shallows or flitting about in the bushes. It takes a decent pair of binoculars, patience, and some help from a field guide to figure out what is actually going on.

We were very pleased to find 53 bird species and 2,668 individuals. The water levels have remained high since March of 2019, and helped contribute to the high number of water birds. The three and one half hour count was conducted with clouds, 10 mile per hour winds and a high of 52 degrees. The 2020 spring migration for some species is late. Usually all geese have headed north except for one or two nesting pairs, and we were surprised to find 529 Canada geese, 70 cackling geese, 4 snow geese and 2 greater white-fronted geese. The main reason we conducted the count was to document early nesting species including Canada geese and ducks.  

The highlight of the day regards wood ducks. There are two duck boxes at Goose Pond, and one of them has been inhabited by hooded mergansers for the last six years. Where are the wood ducks? We probably have low densities of wood ducks because there isn’t a lot of woody cover. This year Graham erected a third duck box two weeks ago. He checked it yesterday (April 23) and voilà! A hen wood duck popped out of the box, and she was sitting on a clutch of eggs. This is the first record of wood ducks nesting at Goose Pond. 

Wood duck couple, photo by Monica Hall

Other observations of note include finding three goose nests in the Manthe wetlands on muskrat houses, 14 species of ducks including a pair of pintails and a lone male, a record of 175 mallards (129 pairs - 46 pairs seen and 83 lone drakes where the females are nesting),  43 double-crested cormorants, an estimated 464 tree swallows that were mostly hunting over the water due to cool weather and a record number of 53 yellow-rumped warblers that were also busy catching insects. Mark will long remember watching duck butts on the Manthe wetlands from Kampen Road.  There were blue-winged teal, northern shovelers, gadwalls, mallards, and northern pintails feasting in the shallow water.  

At feeders during this time of year we trade juncos for goldfinches, chickadees for white-crowned sparrows, and tree sparrows for blackbirds… red-winged and yellow-headed, as it turns out! For a period of five days, three yellow-headed blackbird males frequented bird feeders at the Prairie Lane Residence. We didn’t see any yellow-headed blackbirds during our count, but we’re delighted to have seen them within the last week.

Yellow-headed blackbirds looking at Graham, looking at them. Photo by Graham Steinhauer

Beyond the checklist itself, surveying all of the water and some of the uplands on Goose Pond’s 660 acres, gives you insight on the importance of each habitat or even microhabitat. We try to provide as many quality pieces of habitat for grassland, savanna, and wetland birds as we can. Here are a few examples of the specificities required by bird species. 

A beautiful yellow-rumped warbler, by Richard Armstrong

1. Green-winged teal were found almost exclusively in the wetland scrapes south of the Kampen Road Residence. 

2. Almost all of the yellow-rumped warblers were seen flying back and forth from a patch of sumac to large oak trees.  

3. 85% of ring-neck ducks were found in a thin isthmus of vegetation and flooded cottonwood stumps. We cut those cottonwoods in the winter of 2018.

4. 464 tree swallows were seen during this count, and they were either on their nest box, in the air, or on one particular small dead tree. There was seemingly nothing special about this tree besides that it was near the water where they were feeding. At least 120 tree swallows were seen occupying its few thin branches at a time.

5. One downy woodpecker was observed, and it was on the best (ask a downy what that means) of three snags at Goose Pond. 

Fifty years ago Madison Audubon had just acquired 60 acres along Prairie Lane, and restoration efforts did not begin until 1976 with the planting of the Bicentennial Prairie.  In 1970 there was very little nesting cover in the local area and no restored wetlands.

Today, Madison Audubon owns 660 acres that includes over 400 acres of restored prairie.  With the high water and our 20 acre acres of restored wetlands there are 180 acres covered by water in the local area.  Our neighbors Rollie and Lynn Manthe have their land in wetland and restored prairie habitat.  Judi Benade, a neighbor to the west, has another 75 acres of wildlife habitat.  The upland nesting ducks and grassland bird numbers have greatly responded to the increase in grassland cover.  

Fifty years ago, there were no Canada geese, wood ducks, hooded mergansers, sandhill cranes, northern harriers, or clay-colored sparrows nesting in the area. 

Sandhill cranes happily nest at Goose Pond Sanctuary in 2020. Photo by Arlene Koziol

In 1985 Mark and Sue began erecting kestrel nesting boxes and have greatly expanded the kestrel nest box project thanks to coordination by Brand Smith. On this day, we ran into Bob Bennicoff, a volunteer who was monitoring kestrel boxes. Bob had a smile on his face when he told us about the five pairs of kestrels nesting within a half mile of Goose Pond.

We also observed a number of bird watchers and one hiker on our trail system that enjoyed getting as close to nature as possible while maintaining a reasonable distance from other humans.  This has been an excellent spring migration and many people have visited to view the sanctuary and take a break from staying at home.

Looking back we are thankful to the many members, partners, and neighbors that have helped Goose Pond grow to benefit the prairie, wetlands,  flora and fauna, and our visitors.  The future looks bright for increasing the size and quality of Goose Pond Sanctuary as we move ahead to the 100th celebration of Earth Day! 

Written By Mark and Sue Foote-Martin, Goose Pond Sanctuary resident managers, and Graham Steinhauer, land steward

Brown-headed Cowbird

I came across this post from the Voyageurs Wolf Project on Facebook two weeks ago. The page is informative and worth a follow, and this post reveals a fascinating development in the ecology and behavior of wolves!

Of course, this is an April Fool’s joke. At first, I thought wolves were raising a bear, but it turns out these fictitious wolves were raising a sasquatch. It is all very ridiculous.

Enter the brown-headed cowbird, which actually — and successfully — pulls off this very ridiculous stunt on birds across North America, tricking another species into raising its young. While wolves raising bears and sasquatches is absurd; it is also very cute. Cowbirds, on the other hand, do not receive the benefit of the doubt regarding their cuteness when a poor yellow warbler is tasked with rearing a cowbird chick—a yellow warbler which might end up being 1/5th the size of the fully grown cowbird.

A yellow warbler foster mom with her giant brown-headed cowbird chick. Photo by Emilie Chen FCC

If we think of the yellow warbler as a full-sized wolf of 70 pounds, the black bear (brown-headed cowbird) it raises will be about 318 pounds, which is well above a healthy black bear male’s average weight of about 275 pounds.

The key difference: a yellow warbler raises that cowbird chick in the span of weeks, whereas the black bear takes at least a decade to become that size.

Sidenote: you can learn even more about cowbirds from Matt Reetz’s fantastic Evenings with Audubon presentation here, or in Carolyn Byer’s awesome Into the Nest feature called Cowbirds, everybody’s favorite villain.

Birds might be crudely classified as “things with feathers,” but that way of thinking obscures the incredible variations and adaptations of species, and the brown-headed cowbird probably gets overlooked despite its fascinating life history. E.O Wilson, in his book The Diversity of Life, states that the test of a complete adaptive radiation is “the existence of a species specialized to feed on other members of its own group.” The cowbird brings a twist to this parasitism; it tricks the host bird into feeding its young.

A wood thrush with its own and a brown-headed cowbird nestling. Photo by Kelly Colgan Azar

There are many admirable traits in cowbirds. The females are absolutely prolific at finding nests. Wisconsin just completed its second Breeding Bird Atlas. I participated in the search to find evidence of bird breeding activity—a fun but challenging enterprise. Looking for courtship or copulation, nests with eggs, birds carrying nesting material or food, or recently fledged young, among other things, is tasking. But cowbirds, laying up to 40 eggs in a season, manage to locate and lay eggs in dozens of nests. Upon reflection, I think I should have trained a cowbird female, like a falconer, to accompany my nest-finding expeditions.

Perhaps most impressive, the females then relocate each nest after they lay their eggs. With an enlarged hippocampus compared to males, these female cowbirds have the genius and persistence to bring their eggs into the world.

Mike Ehrmantraut, the famous character from Breaking Bad and Better Call Saul, said “there are two kinds of heists: those where the guys get away with it, and those that leave witnesses.”

The brown-headed cowbird female makes sure she leaves no witnesses. She is Ehrmantraut-esque in her ability to find and stake out the nest. Many scenes in Breaking Bad depict Mike staked out in his car for hours on end, where he eventually notes an interesting habit or behavior of the person he’s watching. Likewise, the female brown-headed cowbird swaps Mike’s 1988 Chrysler Fifth Avenue for brushy fencerows, field edges, and forest clearings—often a result of human disturbance. Here she watches her prospective host, and once a routine is discerned and the host leaves the nest to feed, our female cowbird races to the nest and quickly lays her egg. The deed is done.

Mike Ehrmantraut, observing from his car

Female BHCO, observing from her branch. Photo by Kelly Colgan Azar

But the work for the female is not done. While some opine cowbirds as deadbeats and lazy, the female stays vigilant, watching “her” nests. The cowbird will sometimes appear at a visible spot near the hosts and ensure that the eggs are being cared for. It’s as if the host parents are a witness about to give testimony to bring down a criminal enterprise, but the cowbird appears like a mafioso in the courtroom, and the testimony changes. Again, the behavior might be unsavory, but it is undoubtedly savvy.

What happens if these host birds testify? Many do, and American robins and brown thrashers can successfully eject cowbird eggs and fend off the cowbirds. Other birds will abandon the nest or build a nest on top of the previous one. Yet many birds are maladapted to cowbird parasitism. Researchers have found that when cowbird eggs are removed, the cowbirds will often return to the nest and teach a grisly lesson, destroying the remaining brood. The cowbird philosophy seems again pulled straight from the mouth of Mike Ehrmantrout, who said “The moral of the story is: I chose a half measure, when I should have gone all the way. I’ll never make that mistake again.” There is no half-measure with brown-headed cowbirds; if its egg is ejected, a tit for tat pattern will ensue.

There’s a fascinating Radiolab episode called “Tit for Tat” which explains the prisoner’s dilemma apparent during the Cuban Missile Crisis. One researcher ran a computer tournament where programmers tried to solve the prisoner’s dilemma and faced off against each other. Stacks of code were written, but the winning result was simple. Its first line was “be nice.” The second was “copy the other player’s move.” The program was called “tit for tat.” We see that this is an enthralling solution under this competitive environment. The episode goes on to describe how British and German soldiers, in the trenches during World War I, ended up engaging in a similar sort of scenario. At the lunch hour, both sides learned to cease fire. During Christmas of 1914, British soldiers crawled out of their dark trenches, drawn by the Germans candlelit trees and singing of “Silent Night”. Instead of shooting the exposed British soldiers, both sides decided to have a truce, and they mingled, traded, and drank—and the whole truce lasted a week in some instances. It’s as if, in the darkness of the front lines in December of 1914 the soldiers came together and found their shared humanity.

Back to our cowbirds, at about 20-25 days the juvenile in the host nest will become restless, and like those soldiers during World War 1, the bird sneaks off into the night. These young cowbirds do not find a Christmas truce, but they do find, apparently, their “cowbird-ness.” A clandestine meeting occurs, where the juveniles fly to cowbird roost sites around fields and spend the evening with other cowbirds. Experimental juveniles raised only by their host will end up learning the songs and calls of the host species.

Brown-headed cowbird club, photo by Patricia Pierce FCC

So, in a secret meeting in the middle of the night, the cowbird learns that like the popular mafia front of “waste management” the cowbird family business is “nest management,” and the juvenile returns to the host’s nest by morning, its identity known but its disguise burgeoning—the strong, silent type.

Written by Drew Harry, Faville Grove Sanctuary land steward

Hooded Merganser

Hooded merganser, photo by Mick Thompson

We always enjoy seeing hooded mergansers, especially when the males have their crests — also known as their “hoods” — raised and are in courtship display. The scientific name for hooded mergansers is Lopodytes cucullatus that means “hooded diver.” The crests can be raised and lowered in both sexes, and are a helpful identification guide for these small fish ducks, who with their narrow serrated bills, catch fish.  

Early naturalists in the 19th century listed hooded mergansers as “abundant” in Wisconsin and were found especially in forested areas near water. But Sam Robbins wrote in Wisconsin Birdlife in 1991 that hooded mergansers are uncommon summer residents in southeast Wisconsin. Columbia and adjacent counties were not not included in his breeding map for the species. Their numbers greatly declined due to loss of forested habitat that provided nest cavities and over harvesting by hunters. Sam wrote that “Theoretically, the bird’s summer range should blanket the state.”

According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology “Hooded Mergansers are fairly common and their populations are stable and possibly increased between 1966 and 2015, according to the North American Breeding Bird Survey.”

Hooded merganser range map, provided by The Cornell Lab of Ornithology

We observed their numbers increase in Columbia County in the past four decades. In the 1980’s, we would see a few birds usually in spring migration. In the 1990’s, we began seeing a few nesting pairs. In the first Breeding Bird Atlas (1995-2000), hoodies were confirmed nesting in 12% of the statewide priority and 17% of the priority blocks in Columbia County. In the second Breeding Bird Atlas II (2015-2019), they were confirmed in 26% of the statewide priority blocks and 33% of the Columbia County priority blocks.

A freon nesting tube that was donated to us by the LaCrosse County Conservation Alliance. We replaced the freon tube with a cedar box. Photo by Richard Armstrong

Hooded Mergansers at Our Cabin Near Rio

We had two surprises on March 25th when we began our final check of our duck nest boxes at our cabin near Rio to make sure they were ready to go. The first surprise was finding two boxes that contained screech owl pellets. One of the boxes also contained a small uneaten bullhead. Usually one does not think of owls that go fishing.  

The second surprise was finding two nest boxes with hooded merganser eggs. One box had four eggs and the other had two eggs. So far at the cabin we have three merganser nests with the first eggs laid on March 21, 23 and April 1st. An early ice out and above normal temperatures probably contributed to the early egg laying.

Lovely merganser eggs. Photo by Mark Martin

Our plan at the cabin is to check 20 accessible nest boxes weekly and stop checking individual boxes after finding woodie or hoodie eggs. We also have three nest boxes with wood duck eggs that were first laid on April 3, 4, and 5.  

Nesting Hooded Mergansers at Goose Pond

Goose Pond contains an abundant population of fathead minnows, probably ideal prey for these small diving ducks. But in the past, the property lacked large trees with nesting cavities. That changed in 2015 when we erected two cavities as wood duck boxes. One box was placed at a wetland at Sue Ames Prairie and the other just west of the railroad tracks in the wetland south of the Kampen Road residence.

A hooded merganser nest was found on May 12 at Sue Ames Prairie. We checked the nest box on May 18th and the young were ready to jump out. Nine membranes from hatched eggs and one unhatched egg. This was the the first hooded merganser nesting at Goose Pond. Photo by Mark Martin

On May 12, 2016, Mark, Jim and Kathy Shurts, and grad student Heather Inzalaco conducted a big day count and Mark decided to check the nest box at Sue Ames Prairie. Mark slowly opened the side and could see an incubating female hoodie - what a surprise and a treat! Mark checked the box again on the 18th and nine young were getting ready for “jump day”. This was probably the first record for a hooded merganser nest at Goose Pond! 

Hooded mergansers have used this box every year since 2016. Last year the box contained a large clutch of eggs that did not hatch. We speculated that the female abandoned the nest, was killed, or that this was a dump nest and not incubated.   

However, one evening last July we looked out the large south window of the house on Kampen Road and saw a large brood of hooded mergansers! We were fortunate to watch them grow up. The brood started with 14 young and ended with twelve. The nest box near the brood was checked and many egg membranes and three unhatched eggs were found. Our guess is that both nest boxes were dump nests and only one was incubated. Late last month, Graham Steinhauer checked the box at Sue Ames and found a hoodie nest with the first egg laid on March 26th. 

Hooded merganser cuties, photo by Mick Thompson

When we put up our “wood duck” boxes, our goal was to attract wood ducks, and did we not expect to have nesting hooded mergansers. As of 2020 we still do not have any records of nesting wood ducks, but the hooded mergansers are sure making themselves at home!

A question that some visitors ask is, “Why aren't male hooded mergansers present in Columbia County after mid-April?” It is often mentioned when looking up information on hooded mergansers that after the hen begins incubating the male takes off. Most waterfowl biologists believe they head to wooded river systems and may travel long distances.

Special thanks to Mark and Jenny McGinley who have been erecting, repairing, cleaning out and monitoring 41 wood duck boxes for the past 11 years that at the Anderson Waterfowl Production Area (WPA), Jackson WPA, Otsego Marsh and Schoeneberg Marsh WPA/Erstad Prairie. All areas have high numbers of nesting woodies and hoodies.

Jenny McGinley checks on of their many wood duck boxes, this one at Otsego Marsh. Photo by Mark McGinley

In the past eight years, Mark and Jenny found 193 successful nests including 123 (64%) nests that were only wood ducks, 31 (16%) that were only hooded mergansers, and 39 (20%) that contained eggs of both species (dump nests). Both species can also lay eggs in the nest of their species. Mark and Jenny have found dump nests with up to 33 eggs! Large clutches usually do not hatch since a female would have a hard time incubating large numbers of eggs.

Hoodie females begin nesting at age two, usually lay a clutch of 10 eggs and incubate the eggs for 32 days while woodie females begin nesting their first year, usually lay a clutch of 12 eggs, and incubate for 30 days. It is easy to look at eggs and identify the species since hooded merganser eggs are large, white, thick-shelled and spherical contrasting to smaller, brown, thinner-shelled, oblong eggs of the wood duck. It is assumed that since wood ducks have a shorter incubation period that more wood duck eggs might hatch in dump nests that also contain hooded merganser eggs. We assume that if a female wood duck is checking out nesting cavities and finds a defensive hooded merganser already nesting that she would look for another cavity.

A wood duck box should have a solid predator guard to protect the eggs from hungry raccoons and other critters. Photo by Mark Martin

Consider putting up a nest box to attract a breeding pair. Attach a predator guard to keep predators from raiding eggs and young.”  Note that “wood duck box” blueprints work well for attracting hooded mergansers. Here are some instructions published by National Audubon on how to build a duck box. Some people use pine, but we recommend cedar for its excellent rot resistance. Be sure to add a predator guard as raccoons and other critters love to eat duck eggs.  

If you would like to see a brood of hoodies visit Schoenberg Marsh Waterfowl Production Area adjacent to Madison Audubon’s Erstad Prairie, or MAS’s Otsego Marsh property south of Rio. The young are fun to watch diving, feeding and interacting.  

Written by Mark Martin and Sue Foote-Martin, Goose Pond Sanctuary resident managers

American Woodcock

American woodcock, photo by Fyn Kynd FCC

An unlikely candidate for one of the most beloved birds of spring, this squat, neckless weirdo nevertheless invokes breathlessness upon seeing its spring mating ritual. Belonging to a family of water-associated shorebirds, this bird somehow ended up living its life away from water in early successional woodland, shrubland, and grassland. Its heavy looking body and short legs are not all that unusual when compared to its buzzy and bug-like “peeent” call that the males make during courtship.

Is this bird an ugly duckling? Well, not exactly.

Though its mish-mashed body and habits suggest drunken design, the American woodcock somehow maintains a level of coolness and popularity that overcomes its oddness. These birds can be reliably found in open areas surrounding woods, savannas, and thickets. Their performances begin at dusk, starting with a single peent and climaxing here at Faville Grove with dozens of birds peenting, twittering skyward higher and higher, and falling from the sky like a shot plane, only to land in about the same spot with a declaritive “peent!”—a reaffirming declaration that the woodcock did indeed survive what looked like certain death.

American woodcock overwinter in the Gulf states and have returned to Wisconsin in the past month or so, migrating in darkness over Midwestern states.

You can view woodcock here at Faville Grove Sanctuary. Prairie Lane and North Shore Road are the best spots, but if you are wandering around at dusk, you’re likely to a hear a woodcock almost anywhere in the sanctuary.

Dusk at Faville Grove Sanctuary. Photo by Drew Harry

The best approach is to get settled in a bit before dusk and face west—that way you’ll be able to see the vespering birds flying into the fading light. Once the birds go through a few cycles of peenting and flying, you should be able to track down their location, and if you have binoculars you can try and trace their flight through the sky. Although the sequence appears like clockwork, sometimes a woodcock will surprise you; their fluttering flight at first sounds closer than you’ve heard, and only then do you realize that the bird is headed right for you! Of course, you whip your head and the woodcock has missed you by a considerable margin. Whether the bird was sending a message or entirely caught up in its own ritual is open for interpretation.

This spring, one woodcock has carved out a territory right near my house. I can watch it in the evenings from my deck, but I look east, so it is only a fleeting performance. My viewership is no matter, every night the bird alternates between peenting and flying, this squat and singular little bird, delighting me and perhaps a female woodcock with this strange and delightful spectacle.

Woodcock also have a strange effect on other birds. Where woodcock are found peenting and displaying, bird numbers and diversity are more than 1.5 times higher than in random forest plots. In part, this makes sense because of the diversity of habitats that woodcock use, from foraging in oak woods during the day, to performing in open prairies in the evening, to nesting near shrub thickets or at the base of trees.

If you’re able to, try to get to Faville Grove at dusk and enjoy the evening performance of the woodcock!

Written by Drew Harry, Faville Grove Sanctuary land steward